MPhil Thesis

Fertility Intention, Social Capital and Non-Government Organizations (NGOs) in Bangladesh

2014-01-01T00:00:00Z

Fertility Intention, Social Capital and Non-Government Organizations (NGOs) in Bangladesh Karmaker, Arun Kumar Fertility intention has been drawn increasing attention on the significance of social capital and NGOs because there is interrelation among fertility intention, social capital and NGOs. It is interesting to note that NGOs has a great role to build up a social network which can be treated as a medium by which individuals learn about demographic behavior. Social networks can also be sources of valuable resources that help to reduce the costs of having children and that build a stock of fertility-related social capital. In general, social interactions in personal networks affect individual's reproductive attitudes and behavior. However, social capital is a multidimensional concept and is used to refer to the goodwill, trust, and cooperation evident in any particular organization or society. It is the fruit of social relations and consists of the expectative benefits derived from the preferential treatment and cooperation between individuals and groups. In other words, social capital means relationships with others by trust, norms and social networks that an individual can change his/her socioeconomic phenomena. Trust, social norms and social networks are the elements of social capital, by these elements one can improve the society and can get economic benefits by which changes his/her status. NGOs have great impact and contribution to make social capital through various programs such as, micro-credit. In this context, an attempt has been made to know the interrelationships among fertility intention, social capital and NGOs at Charghat Thana, Rajshahi. For this purpose, data were collected from 498 ever married women who are the members of different NGOs and from women who are not involved with NGOs through purposive sampling. Based on primary data, the impact of social capital measured on intentions to have a second child has been investigated. This study also identifies the determinants of fertility intention and the determinants of fertility at Charghat Thana. It also investigates the role of NGOs to build up social capital. The result indicates that most of the respondents are middle aged groups 26- 45 years (43.4%), 20.1 % women are young in the age group 15-25 years, 36.5% women are older age groups above 45 years. 31.7% of the women have completed primary education, majority of women are house wife (87.6%) and a few numbers of women are involved with petty business (7.6%). Most of the women are Muslims (77.7%). It is observed that 34. I% families have monthly income below 5000 Taka, 37.1 % families have monthly income in the range 5000-8000Taka, 11.4% families have monthly income in the range 8000-10000 Taka, and 17. I% families have monthly income above 10000 Taka and the average monthly income is 6171.69 Taka. It is also observed that 49.4% families have monthly expenditure below 5000 Taka, 30.3% families have monthly expenditure in the range 5000-8000Taka, 12.2% families have monthly expenditure in the range 8000-10000 Taka, and 8% families have monthly expenditure above 10000 Taka and the average monthly expenditure is 5286.75 taka. About fifty percent (50%) women marry at age under 18 years. 76.4% are using contraception who are involved with NGOs which impact on reducing fertility. The result shows that 20.8% women who involved with NGOs have intention to bear more children and 21.1 % women have intention to bear more children who are not involved with NGOs. The social capital index is constructed to observe social capital formation among NGO members. To know the determinants of fertility intention, the prominent multivariate analysis such as, logistic regression analysis has been employed. The results reveals that middle aged women 26-35 years have 76 percent less likely and older women aged 35 and over have 98 percent less likely to have fertility intention respectively than younger women aged less than 25 years. Muslim women are 1.2 times more likely to have fertility intention than their non-Muslim counterparts. The result shows that primary completed women have 42 percent less likely and secondary and higher educated women have 22 percent less likely to have fertility intention respectively than illiterate women. Women who have married under 18 years old have 21 percent less likely to have fertility intention than the women who have married above and equal 18 years. Women who have household assets are 1.4 times more likely to have fertility intention than those women who have no household assets. The result indicates that the women who are involved with NGOs are 1.5 times more likely to have fertility intention than women who don't involve with NGO. It shows that women who attend regular group meeting of NGOs are 35 percent less likely to have fertility intention than those women who don't attend regular group meeting. 22% women who belong middle social capital index are less likely to have fertility intention than those women who have lower social capital index and the women who have upper social capital index are 31 percent less interested to have fertility intention than those women who have lower social index. The multiple classification analysis has been conducted to evaluate the contribution of socio-economic and demographic variables on fertility. The important determinants of fertility are women age, religion, education, age at marriage, contraceptive use, having electricity, mass media exposure, NGO membership and social capital index. Consciousness has grown among members exposed to NGO led activities. Most of the members have a strong knowledge about AIDS, arsenic contamination, Immunization program, health, nutritional needs, family planning, etc., after involvement into NGO activities. It is note that the average monthly family income of the respondents had TK. 4125.25 before joining the NGO as a member. After joining as a member, the average monthly family income has increased to TK. 6171.69. Before the membership, the average family expenditure was 3917.35, and after membership the average expenditure is measured at TK. 5286.75. The average savings has increased to TK. 884.94 (mean) due to a NGO member. Illness as well as awarding education for the member s' children depends on several independent variables like income, savings, hygienic condition, sanitation, TT vaccine, family planning, member s' education, etc so as to remove illness, and to expand educational facilities of the children. NGO has played a significant role by increasing family income, ensuring healthy sanitation facilities, providing educational facilities, enlarging knowledge on health education, etc. The correlation and path analysis have been used to know the relationship and the factors affecting fertility intention, social capital and NGOs. From the correlation analysis, it is found that social capital has significantly positively correlated with total family member and NGO membership. On the other hand, age at marriage and wealth are significantly inversely correlated on SCI. To examine the causal link (direct, indirect and total effects) among socio-economic and demographic variables, a multivariate technique known as path model analysis has been applied. The total association, the direct effects, non-causal effects, and total effects of exogenous and endogenous variables on the residual variable such as social capital have been investigated. The total association with SCI is statistically significant with age at first marriage, total family member, wealth and NGO membership. The age at first marriage, total family member and wealth are also statistically significant with NGO membership through total association. The total association with fertility intention is statistically significant as women age, age at first marriage and total family member. But women age, education, total family member, fertility intention and NGO membership have favorable total effects on social capital; age at marriage and wealth have adverse total effects on social capital. This study will help to policy makers to give idea to understand the NGOs contribution about social capital formation and to identify the relationships among fertility intention, social capital and NGOs at Charghat Thana in Rajshahi District in Bangladesh. This Thesis is Submitted to the Department of Population Science and Human Resource Development, University of Rajshahi, Rajshahi, Bangladesh for The Degree of Master of Philosophy (MPhil)

An Assessment of Vulnerability to HIV Infection of Female Smugglers in Hilli Port, Bangladesh

2013-01-01T00:00:00Z

An Assessment of Vulnerability to HIV Infection of Female Smugglers in Hilli Port, Bangladesh Islam, Md. Shahidul Female smugglers in Hilli port of Bangladesh are more vulnerable of Sexually Transmitted Infections (STIs) and HIV/AIDS because of their high mobility. Therefore, the assessment of vulnerability to HIV infection among female smugglers has long been an interesting topic to population and health researchers in Bangladesh. This study is an effort to assess the determinants of knowledge and awareness about HIV/AIDS, HIV/AIDS contamination risks, sexually abused through smuggling, perpetrators of sexually abused and perpetrators of drug affection among female smugglers based on the data of 300 female smugglers in Hilli port, Bangladesh collected by purposive sampling technique, which are the key elements of the assessment of vulnerability to HIV infection. To carry out the objectives, univariate, bivariate and multivariate techniques like descriptive statistics, chi-square test, binary logistic regression analysis and multinomial logistic regression analysis have been employed in accordance with their importance. In this study, it is observed that most of the female smugglers are belonged to <30 years of ages (82%) in which a remarkable numbers (22.3%) are teenagers, i.e., 10-20 years aged. The majorities have primary (30%) and under secondary (31.7%) level of education. Similar pattern of parent’s educational qualification has been observed where mother’s education has downgraded relative to father’s education in every level of education. Again, the majorities (63%) have earned 500-1000 Tk per month and all of female smugglers have improved their living conditions through this profession. Poverty (95%), pressure of family (56.3%) and absence of husband (38%) have been found as main cause of involvement in this profession. However, only 50% have details knowledge, 51.3% have knowledge about the way to protect from HIV/AIDS and 45% have awareness about HIV/AIDS. Although 70% female smugglers know that condom can protect this epidemic but only 30% use condom at the time of sex. The majorities (69.3%) think that they have the risks of HIV/AIDS contamination because 74% have been sexually abused by male colleagues (53.5%), Indian track drivers (30.9%), BSF (13.4%) and BGB (2.3%) through this profession, in which 55% exercise unsafe sex. Furthermore, most of the female smugglers (92.3%) have been influenced to take drug by male colleagues (39.7%), Indian track drivers (45.5%), BSF (11.2%) and BGB (3.6%) through the profession of smuggling. However, it has been identified that educated respondents, those have awareness by person, doctor and NGO workers, those have knowledge about the bad impact of HIV/AIDS from media, those are participated in HIV/AIDS seminar and in religious seminar are more likely to have knowledge about HIV/AIDS as compared with their counterparts respectively; and respondents who are belonged to >20 years of age group, those have awareness by person, doctor and NGO workers and who have any understanding with HIV affected persons are more likely to have awareness about HIV/AIDS as against their counterparts respectively. Again, there have been found the statistical significant association of HIV/AIDS contamination risks with knowledge about the way to protect from HIV/AIDS, exercise unsafe sex, participation on HIV/AIDS seminar, sexually abused passing through smuggling, using condom in sexual relation and influence to taking drugs in this profession respectively. In addition, respondents who exercise unsafe sex, those are sexually abused and influenced to take drugs passing through smuggling have found to be having more risks of HIV/AIDS contamination as against their counterparts respectively. In this study, smuggler’s age, father’s education, marital status, reasons of coming to smuggling, monthly income through smuggling and unsafe sex have statistical significant association; and smuggler’s age, reasons of coming to this profession, monthly income through smuggling, unsafe sex and drug affecting have statistical significant effect on sexually abused through smuggling respectively. It is also mentionable that female smugglers are more vulnerable of sexually abused after 25 years of their ages and poverty is one of the main reasons to coming this profession which is also significant reason of sexually abused. Nevertheless, the chance of sexually abused has been decreased with increasing the monthly income through smuggling. It has been determined through multinomial logistic regression analysis that father’s education, marital status, unsafe sex and types of drug affecting have significant effect on Indian track driver; and respondent’s educational status, marital status, reasons of coming to smuggling and monthly income through smuggling have significant effect on BSF/BGB by whom female smugglers are sexually abused. It is clear that the vulnerability of sexually abused by BSF/BGB decreases with increasing the smuggler’s educational level and monthly income through this profession; and unmarried female smugglers and those have the habit of unsafe sex and injection or other types of drug using have been sexually abused more by Indian track driver respectively. There have also been found the significant associations of perpetrators of drug affecting with smuggler’s age, educational status, father’s education, mother’s education, marital status, reasons of coming to smuggling, monthly income through smuggling, unsafe sex and types of drug affecting respectively. The tendency of drug affecting through male colleague of smuggling and Indian track driver is increasing with increasing smuggler’s age, and unmarried female smugglers have more chance of drug affecting by them. Moreover, the smugglers whose reasons of coming to this profession is poverty have more chance of drug affecting by male colleague of smuggling and the smugglers who exercise unsafe sex have more chance of drug affecting by Indian track driver as against their counterparts. In the light of the present study, it is strongly recommended that enhancing education with community based health related educational program through mass media, avoiding unsafe sex with increasing the effective use of condom, stopping the sexual harassment or sexually abused through smuggling and the influence to take drugs by their male colleagues, Indian track drivers or others in the profession, empowering the female smugglers and poverty reduction strategy are essential for reducing the vulnerability to HIV infection as well as for stopping smuggling among female smugglers in Hilli port, Bangladesh. Hopefully, this study would be very helpful for policy makers, program designers/planners to design or redesign program(s) or existing program(s) considering the identified risk factors. This thesis is Submitted to the Department of Population Science and Human Resource Development, University of Rajshahi, Rajshahi, Bangladesh for The Degree of Master of Philosophy (MPhil)

Women Empowerment in Bangladesh: A Study on Rural-Urban Differentials

2009-01-01T00:00:00Z

Women Empowerment in Bangladesh: A Study on Rural-Urban Differentials Islam, Towfiqua Mahfuza Women empowerment has been considered as essential precondition for the elimination of world poverty and as central issue in the process of development for many countries in the world today. Reviewing many relevant literatures, this study tries to clarify the term -women empowerment and an attempt has been made to measure women empowerment index (WEI), the relation between contraceptive behaviour and women empowerment, the impact of women empowerment on fertility using Bangladesh Demographic and Health Survey (BDHS) -2004 data. WEI has been constructed averaging three important dimension indices namely, economic decision making index, household decision making index and physical movement index and consequently it has been found that four out of ten of Bangladeshi women have high level of empowerment. Comparatively low empowerment in physical freedom has been observed in comparison with economic and household decision making empowerment. Higher level of empowerment in all the three dimensions has been found for the 35 -49 age grouped women, whose husband's age are 35+ years, who have same aged husbands and for currently working women as well. In addition, respondent's current age, educational level, children ever born (CEB) and media exposure have been identified as important determinants for the aforementioned three dimensions of women empowerment. The study also reveals that urban women are more empowered in all dimensions than their rural counterparts. Using various types of mathematical models, here it is found that quadratic polynomial model is more applicable to WEI score in all areas on the basis of cross validity prediction power (CVPP) test. Regarding contraceptive behaviour, more use of contraception has been found for higher aged, higher educated women and for the respondents who have media access, discussed family planning more frequently with their husbands. The study also reveals that urban women use more contraception than their rural counterparts. In this study, respondent's current age, age at first marriage, work status, CEB, spousal discussion of family planning have been identified as significant factors affecting contraceptive behaviour on the basis of multinomial logistic regression analysis. The study also shows that CEB increases with the increase in respondent's age, number of children dead and household decision making index. Finally this study tries to find out the significant factors affecting fertility using multiple linear regression analysis and confirms respondent's current age, age at first marriage, educational qualification, husband's educational attainment, number of children dead, religion, media exposure, discussion on family planning and household decision making participation as significant determinants. The findings of this study have a great importance to promote women empowerment in Bangladesh. Thus to face challenges in the coming future, the policy makers, planners should have to take not only necessary policies but also to implement them at their earliest convenience. This thesis is Submitted to the Department of Population Science and Human Resource Development, University of Rajshahi, Rajshahi, Bangladesh for The Degree of Master of Philosophy (MPhil)

Factors Affecting Contraceptive Use among Young Fecund Women in Bangladesh

2015-01-01T00:00:00Z

Factors Affecting Contraceptive Use among Young Fecund Women in Bangladesh Islam, Ahmed Zohirul Background: World population stood at 7.238 billion in 2014. South Asia accounts 1.806 billion of world population of which, Bangladesh, the third populous country in South Asia contributes 158.5 million people. More than half of the population of Bangladesh is young (32.3% are below age 15 and 18.8% are age 15-24). As this large cohort of young people enters the reproductive life span, their reproductive behavior will determine the growth and size of population of Bangladesh for decades to come. So, this study focused on the contraceptive use status of young women as contraceptive prevalence is the main determinant of fertility. Extensive research has been made to identify the factors influencing the uptake of contraceptives. However, existing studies neglected the importance of specifying the fecundity of women though fecund (those who are physically capable to bear children) women are at real risk of encountering unintended pregnancy. Therefore, this study aims to explore the determinants of contraceptive use among young fecund women. Methods: This study utilized a representative set of cross-sectional data extracted from the Bangladesh Demographic and Health Survey (BDHS) 2011. Out of 17,842 ever married women this study considered 4,982 who were young currently married fecund to analyse fertility, fertility preference and contraceptive use and to analyse demand for contraception. Moreover, 3,744 young currently married fecund nonpregnant non-amenorrheic women, who were in actual need of current contraceptive use, were selected to analyse current contraceptive use. Besides, 237 women who used traditional and folkloric contraceptive method were excluded from 3,744 women to analyse modern contraceptive use. Descriptive statistics, binary logistic regression and multinomial logistic regression were used for analyses. Results: It was observed that contraceptive prevalence (CP) was 54.4% among currently married fecund women but CP became 70.6% when we refined our sample by considering only currently married fecund non-pregnant non-amenorrheic women who were at actual risk of encountering pregnancy. We propose the later one as net contraceptive prevalence (NCP) among young fecund women. Women who wanted to have another child after two years of the survey out of them more than one-third did not use any contraceptive and were at risk of having mistimed pregnancy. Women who did not want child any more out of them 45% did not use any contraceptive which put them at risk of encountering unwanted pregnancy. In spite of having three or more children 11.6% and 2.3% among them respectively desired to have another child after two years and within two years of the survey. These proportions became 20% and 4% respectively among women with two children. One third of women having two children did not use contraceptive and almost half of the women who had three or more children did not use any method of contraception. The highest prevalence of contraceptive use was recorded in young women aged 23- 24 years, those who were educated, those who were non-Muslim, those who got married before age of 18 years, those who gave birth in early adolescent period, those who had two or more living children, those whose husbands were professional worker, those lived in Barisal division or resided in the urban area. Moreover, husband-wife joint decisions regarding respondents’ own health care, child health care, large household purchases and visiting to family members or relatives were found to be highest for using any contraceptive. In multivariate analysis, it was observed that age, age at marriage, number of living children, desire for more children, husband’s desire for children, husband’s education and occupation, region, place of residence (urban-rural), religion, visited by FP workers and decision making power on own health care and child health care were identified as the influential predictors of current contraceptive use. Use of modern contraceptive was found highest among young women aged 23-24 years, those who were educated, those who were non-Muslim, those who experienced child marriage, those who had two or more living children, those whose husbands were professional workers, those who lived in Barisal division or resided in the urban area, those who were visited by FP workers, those who desired no more children and those who jointly took decision with their husbands regarding their own health care, child health care, large household purchases and visiting to family members or relatives. Findings of binary logistic regression analysis indicated that age, age at marriage, number of living children, desire for more children, husband’s desire for children, husband’s occupation, region, place of residence (urban-rural), religion, visited by FP workers and person who decides on respondent's own health care, child health care and visiting family or relatives had significant effects on using modern contraceptives. It was observed from this study that total unmet need for contraception was 16.6% out of which 13.4% for spacing birth and 3.2% for limiting birth. Total demand for contraception was 71% and proportion of demand satisfied was 77%. Unmet need for contraception was highest in young fecund women who were adolescent (aged 13-19 years), those who were illiterate, those who were Muslim, those who gave 2 births during 3 years preceding the survey, those who gave birth in adolescent period, those who had more than two living children, those whose husbands were manual worker, those who did not know about their husbands’ desire for children, those lived in Chittagong division or resided in the rural area, those who belong to the poorest quintile of wealth, those who watched television less than once a week. Moreover, husband-wife joint decisions regarding respondents’ own health care, child health care, large household purchases and visiting to family members or relatives were found to be lowest for having unmet need and highest for having met need for contraception. Findings of multinomial logistic regression analysis elucidated that age, number of births during three years preceding the survey, region, place of residence (urban-rural), religion, husband’s desire for children, visited by FP workers, decision making power on child health care and read about FP in newspaper/magazine were significant predictors of unmet need for contraception relative to current contraceptive use. Conclusion: This study assessed net contraceptive prevalence and identified the factors affecting contraceptive use among young fecund women. Women who had two or more children and wanted another child after two years of the survey or wanted no more children but were not using contraceptive were at risk of having unplanned or unwanted pregnancy. Husband-wife joint decision making power was found to be a significant factor that influences contraceptive use. So, this study suggests that greater gender equality may encourage women’s participation in decision making. Additionally, family planning policies should also be tailored to address the specific needs of these young fecund women with varied geographical locations. This thesis is Submitted to the Population Science and Human Resource Development, University of Rajshahi, Rajshahi, Bangladesh for the Degree of Master of Philosophy (MPhil)