Terracotta Ornamentation in The Muslim Architecture of Bengal

Abstract

Ornamentation in Muslim architecture is an art of the surface. In an overall estimation, architecture is an art only by reason of its surfaces, its skin of mosaic, stucco, ceramic or marble, the verses of the Quran to be read on its walls and the fascination of its geometric patterns and abstract decoration of arabesque. This is also the view of the Muslim architect who transformed the architectonic elements into purely decorative compositions. In fact, Muslim artists were rarely inventive in the domain of forms, but their contribution to surface ornamen­tation was indisputably original. Muslim artists not only made the most use of almost all the traditional ornamental media or techniques, but also invented a few ones enriching the world art thereby. They strove to realize the artistic potential of every technique to the fullest, irrespective of its material nature. Even the craft of terracotta was raised to an art of excellence in Muslim decoration. The present study aims at an investigation into the character, quality, technique and technicalities, and the influence of the Muslim terracotta art of Bengal. The study has been designed into seven chapters, the first two being devoted to background discussions for the setting of the rest - the thesis part of the study. Chapter I deals in brief with the meaning, aesthetics, characteristics and themes of Muslim ornamentation. It also presents an over-view discussion on the various ornamental techniques used in Muslim architecture, tracing their beginning and following their course of progress across the Muslim lands including Bengal, the study area. The point of view has been to place Muslim art in Bengal in the context of the pan-Islamic art movement and establish links of some sorts between Bengal art and that in other Muslim countries, particularly Persia, which led to the genesis of Indo-Muslim art. Chapter II presents a summary discussion on the terracotta art of India in historical perspective from the Peasant Cultures (c. 3rd millennium B.C.) down to the architectural reliefs of the Buddhist Viharas in Bengal (up to c. 12th century). Through the ages, Indian terracottas mostly consisted of figure subjects of cult deities, men, women and animals, either in relief or in the round. Architectural terracotta is not known in India prior to the time of the Guptas (4th-6th centuries). In the post-Gupta period, terracotta reliefs in architecture remained confined to Bengal, that too, in the eastern and northern parts of the country. But the art appears to have died out by the 10th century. The Muslim conquerors of Bengal, however, revived the terracotta tradition in the 14th century, infusing thereto a new dimension in character, quality and application. They also continued a number of older indigenous motifs of Bengal, those that did not smack of imagery and hence, were not abominable to Muslim icono-phobic taste. Muslim terracotta art in Bengal is, therefore, a hybrid style bred of antithetic art idioms, but developing a distinct personality of its own in compromise with the land of its birth. Chapter III is devoted to an analytical study of the terracotta ornamentation in the Muslim architecture of Bengal. The chapter has been divided into six sections vis-a-vis the chronology of Muslim political history in Bengal, the purpose being to observe the condition of the art during each of the phases of political rule. Section A covers the pre-independence (pre-Sultani) period of Muslim rule in Bengal when the political and cultural ideas of the ruling elite were largely fed by streams coming from Delhi. and through it from the wider Muslim world further beyond. The terracotta art of the period is represented by the Bari Masjid (c. 1300) at Chhota Pandua in Hooghly, where a preponde­rance of Muslim abstract motifs occurred with minimal use of local elements, which were probably the choice of the native artists engaged in the work. Section B observes the state of the terracotta art during the first phase of independent Bengal represented by the early Ilyas fillahl rule (1342-1414). The Ilyas Shahi rulers identified themselves with local interests and made liberal concessions to local elements in the political and cultural arenas. The social tone of the period is reflected in the terracotta ornamentation of the Adina Mosque (1375) at ����azrat Pandua in Malda, where there occurred an onrush of local folk motifs side by side charac­teristic Muslim patterns. But the ornamentation appeared incongruous with the stone surface of the structure, nor were the two art traditions synthesized.

Section C shows the evolution of a purely brick architecture and integrated terracotta ornamentation in Bengal under the local converted House of Raja Ganesa (1415-32), represented by the Eklakhi Mausoleum (1415-32) at Hazrat Pandua. The monument - set the modus of surface decoration of the subsequent sultani architecture of Bengal and by effecting a synthesis between the characteristically Muslim and the local elements, evolved a common art formula. The terracotta’s now became integrated into the masonry of the structure and also improved in finesse of execution.

Section D consists of a discussion on the terracotta art of the restored Ilyas Sha.hi period (1433-86), which was marked by brisk building activities both at the capital of Gaur and in the outlying areas of Bengal. The local aims and ideals thathad taken shape during the rule of the converted dynasty continued to be ceaselessly pursued by the Ilyas ShahI rulers, so that the Muslim rule and culture in Bengal became fully acclimatized. In the process, architecture reached its classical phase by means of balanced proportion of its various elements, and terracotta ornamentation attained its excellence both in substance and execution. A group of monuments built at Khalifatabad (modern Bagerhat) in Khulna district during the period and known as Khan Jahan style distinctly betrays Tughluqian features from Delhi. Besides, certain decorative elements of Persian antecedent are also noticed in the terraco­ttas of the period. All these suggest Bengal's cultural contact both with Delhi and Persia during the period under study. Although sparse use of glazed tiles appeared in the monuments of the period, terracotta remained the almost exclusive decora­tive technique. Section E studies the terracotta of the Firuza Minar ascribed to sayf al-Dln Firuz ����ah (1486-89), the ����byssinian ruler of Bengal. The terracottas of the monument are restrained but graceful art products anu kept up the classical heritage of the Ilyas Shahi period. The combined use of glazed tiles and terracotta in the monum����nt as well as its shape and interior spiral staircase betrays Perso-Iraqi influence. Section F deals with the terracotta ornamentation in the monuments of the ����usain Shahi period (1493-1538). The period witnessed the most extensive building activities throughout the Kingdom of Bengal. Besides brick buildings, there now came to be erected buildings with brick core and stone facing, called the 'brick-and-stone style'. The period offers nothing signi­ficantly novel either in architecture or in ornamentation. The brick buildings merely imitated the terracotta designs of the Ilyas 0hah1 period for their aecoration with no newness in themes or artistic improvement. The attempt at executing terracotta motifs in stone did not also succeed well. There occurred, on the other hand, an over-richness in the details of the terra­ cottas and meaningless repetition of stereotyped panelled decoration. In fact, the period marked the beginning of deca­dence of the Muslim terracotta tradition in Bengal. An increase in the use of glazed tiles is noticeable in the monuments of the Husain Shahis. This perhaps speaks of the opulence of Bengal at the time and also suggests the continued influence of Persia - the land of tiles, on Bengal decorative art.

Chapter IV dwells upon the terracotta ornamentation in the Muslim architecture of Bengal during the interregnum between the end of the Sultanate (1538) and the Mughal conquest of Bengal (1576), and under the Mughal rule. There were little building activities in Bengal during the interregnum with the least use of terracotta decoration. The Mughals preferred plaster deco­ration and under them, the terracotta art received no royal patronage. However, the popular love for the art kept it alive in sporadic instances away from the centres of Mughal rule till late 17th century. But by then, the ornamental motifs as well as the designs had lost their artistic appeal and were reduced to a faint reflex of their past glorious self. Chapter V contains a discussion on the occurrence of the Sul����ini terracotta motifs and features in the Hindu temple ornamentation of Bengal from the 16th to the 19th centuries. The temples of late medieval Bengal, mostly built of brick, were local in origin with characteristic Bengali features such as curved cornice, panelled ornamentation in terracotta, panelled arched entrance etc. - features initiated by the Eklakhl Mausoleum (1415-32) and commonly used in the sul����ani buildings of Bengal. Even the ground plan of the ratna style of temples and the interior vault of the temple styles in general are held to have been influenced by Muslim precedents. A large number of Muslim geometric patterns and strip motifs continued almost unchanged in temple ornamentation. Besides, some of the temple terracottas closely imitated Muslim abstract designs such as the arabesque. These influences were extensive in the 16th and 17th centuries temples, but diminished in the 18th and 19th centuries; nevertheless, certain Muslim elements lingered in temple decoration till the end of the temple building movement in Bengal. Chapter VI investigates into the making technique and the technicalities of seating the Muslim terracotta. It also discusses the nature of formation of the terracotta designs and attempts at their classification. Incidentally, it throws side light on the making centres of the terracottas and the diffusion of the technical knowledge of the art. Chapter VII summarises the nature and general chdracteristics of the Muslim terracotta ornamentation in Bengal in the light of the discussions made in the previous chapters.